STEPS TO THE STARS
BOOKS BY DANIEL W. FRY
The White Sands Incident
To Men of Earth
Steps to the Stars
By Daniel W. Fry
Copyright 1956 by Daniel W. Fry
All rights reserved.
Fourth Printing 1965
Printed in the United States of America by
CSA Printers and Publishers, Lakemont, Georgia 30552
When Understanding is added to
knowledge it is but a step
to the stars.
CONTENTS
ABOUT
THE AUTHOR .................................................................................................. 3
FOREWORD .................................................................................................................... 4
INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................. 6
CHAPTER ONE
THE NONLINEARITY OF PHYSICAL LAW ............................................................... 9
CHAPTER TWO
GRAVITY .......................................................................................................................... 12
CHAPTER THREE
MATTER AND MASS ..................................................................................................... 19
CHAPTER FOUR
SPACE .............................................................................................................................. 22
CHAPTER FIVE
THE QUANTITY C .......................................................................................................... 25
CHAPTER SIX
TIME .................................................................................................................................. 27
CHAPTER SEVEN
CONCLUSION ................................................................................................................. 33
Daniel W. Fry,
though still a comparatively young man, (he was born in 1908) has been in a
position to observe, in intimate detail, the development of the science of
rocketry in the United States. During the second World War, he was employed by
the California Institute of Technology to test, at their Eaton Canyon Project,
the double base propellant missile which was being developed for the use of our
Armed Forces.
He is a charter member and one of the founders of the
Pacific Rocket Society, which now has members in all parts of the United States
and in several foreign countries.
From 1949 to 1955, he was employed by the Aerojet General
Corporation, the world's largest developer and manufacturer of rocket engines.
It was during the second year of this employment, 1950, that an event occurred
which demonstrated to Mr. Fry the severe limitations and the basic obsolescence
of the rocket concept. The event, which he has described minutely in his first
book, "The White Sands Incident," also brought to him a number of
somewhat advanced and at the same time simplified concepts of the physical
science.
This book is the result of some of his attempts to make
these concepts available to the general public. Daniel Fry is currently
employed as the Superintendent of Research at the Crescent Engineering and
Research Co., a rapidly growing concern whose headquarters are in El Monte. California.
He is also the editor of a monthly publication called
"Understanding," and the first president of a world wide organization
of the same name.
by Lloyd E. Cannon, Ph.D
"Happy is the man that findeth wisdom, and the
man that getteth understanding." Proverbs 3:13.
These words, accredited to one of the wisest thinkers of
all times, must be the criterion of today's seekers of Truth, as well. However,
wisdom and understanding constitute a state of awareness which comes from an
unobstructed view of an unobstructed Universe.
Remember the story of the child who was informed by his
Sunday School teacher, "From dust ye came, and to dust ye shall
return," (no doubt referring to Wise King Solomon's word's: "All go
unto one place; all are of the dust, and all turn to dust again.")
At home the little boy happened to roll a ball under the
bed, and came running to his mother, exclaiming excitedly, "Mommy, Mommy,
come quick! There's somebody in the bedroom under the bed!"
11
Showing his Mother the rolls of dust underneath the bed,
the little boy said, "See. he's either coming or going."
That pile of dust signified to the little lad just one
thing, from the "bit of knowledge" he had recently acquired, to him
God was in the process of creating another man, or of taking one away.
Here is a lucid example of a rare philosophical idea completely
misunderstood and distorted in the mind. All of us react as this little boy
did. When we get a "bit of knowledge" we think we have understanding.
Or, we become so confused by conflicting viewpoints that we give up before we
even start.
This brings us to Dan Fry's unique treatment of laws and
theories which have been expounded, more or less by others; but not in this
distinctly different manner.
Dan provokes one to think things out for himself. He seems
to reach out to you, offering a key to logic simply expressed. One can grasp
easily what he says of our Universe and Our Creator.
This man, who has traversed many a step to the stars,
breaks down the barriers to an understanding. Through him the mysteries and
complexities are deleted. The fresh and clear definitions within the pages of
this book make one conscious of a science and law underlying the Universe.
You may or you may not accept what Dan Fry
12
writes; but as you continue reading through this book, you
will certainly think about "Steps to the Stars" and a literal
possibility of them.
Many things have been written as to what constitutes a
good book. I think that Dan Fry's latest book is a `must' for everyone who has
become `Space-Conscious'-a `must' for everyone who is absolutely certain that we
are moving into a New Dispensation, when a completely new point of reference is
necessary.
Dan throws a search light of understanding on scientific
facts which have heretofore baffled many. I feel that any book which unfolds
the Wonder and the Glory of God's Creations is a good book-therefore
"Steps to the Stars" is emphatically a very special book.
Laure, my wife, tells so much more, in such fewer words
than I, allow me her expression in prose.
From the Goodness of His Heart
God reached out and sprinkled
our
Heads with a bit of wisdom.
Through pain or knowledge it
grew
Into understanding and built the
Steps to the Stars; that
human
Footsteps could climb to the
Everlasting Home of Light.
13
Steps To The Stars
Preface To The Fourth Printing
Because of the continuing and insistent demand for this
book, the author has, somewhat reluctantly, consented to a fourth printing,
even though the book has been out of print for more than five years.
In the intervening years several of the concepts expressed
in the book, which were completely new to cosmology when the book was first
published, have now been generally accepted because of new evidence obtained
during the recent Geophysical year. Some of the statements, however, which were
perfectly true when the book was first published, only nine years ago, now
sound almost as if they were prehistoric utterances. For example, the statement
on page 37 indicating that the greatest height achieved by any rocket was
little more than 250 miles. This statement was perfectly true in 1955, but
sounds utterly ridiculous in 1965. We are, however, allowing the 1955
statements to remain in the book as a reminder to the reader that the present
rate of scientific progress is such that it constantly amazes even those who
are foremost in its pursuit.
The establishment of contact between earthmen and extraterrestrials,
is by no means a new phenomenon. Individual instances of such contact have been
recorded as far back as the written history of the earth can trace. They usually
take place at a time when our earthly civilization, or some deserving portion
of it, is in dire need of such assistance. The possibility of such contacts is
usually doubted and denied by almost everyone except those who are actually
contacted, yet some great good, some definite advance along the path toward
true civilization seems invariably to follow such a visitation.
It is not the purpose of this book to trace these
incidents back through history; but a single example may serve to illustrate
the point. There is a legend in our country's history to the effect that one
of the men who assisted in the formation of our constitution was a man who
apparently was completely unknown to any of the others. His name does not
appear on the document, and as far as can be
15
ascertained, he was never seen again after its completion.
Yet it was he who, time after time, stepped into the breach when a deadlock
seemed certain between opposing beliefs or interests, and pointed out a simple
compromise which was acceptable to all parties. Of course, this is only a
legend; it is not mentioned in any of our elementary or high school history
books, probably because it seems to smack of metaphysics or the occult.
Nevertheless, it is a subject which has been discussed in all seriousness by
intelligent and learned men. As an example, I offer the following excerpt from
an oration before the American Philosophical Society by David Rittenhouse,
well-known astronomer, physicist and philosopher, in 1775.
Speaking on the possibility of extraterrestrial life and
intelligence, Rittenhouse said- "Neither religion nor philosophy forbids
us to believe that infinite wisdom and power, prompted by infinite goodness,
may throughout the vast extent of creation and duration have frequently
interposed in a manner quite incomprehensible to us when it became necessary to
the happiness of created beings of some other rank or degree.
"How far indeed, the inhabitants of the other planets
may resemble man, we cannot pretend to say. If, like him, they were created
liable to fall, yet some if not all of them may retain their original
rectitude. We will hope they do. The thought is comforting. If their in
16
habitants resemble man in their faculties and affections,
let us suppose they are wise enough to govern themselves according to the
dictates of that reason their creator has given them, in such a manner as to
consult their own and each other's true happiness on all occasions. We 'e will
hope that their statesmen are patriots and that their kings, if that order of
beings has found admittance there, have the feeling of humanity. Happy people! Perhaps
more happy still that all communication with us is denied."
♦ ♦ ♦
This statement is a direct answer to the question which is
being asked by millions of people today, yet as we see, this question was asked
and answered one hundred and eighty years ago. It has also been asked and
answered many times in previous ages and eras. Today we find that the same
"Infinite wisdom and power" prompted by the same "Infinite
goodness" has again interposed in a manner quite incomprehensible to most
of us, at a time when it was certainly necessary; not only to the happiness,
but to the very existence of created beings on earth.
There is one significant fact which we should always
remember. The present series of extraterrestrial visitations began at the exact
time when the thinking men of earth had begun to realize with terrible certainty
17
that mankind had at last achieved the ability to destroy
itself completely, without having acquired the understanding necessary
to prevent itself from doing so.
Scientists, philosophers, and statesmen were desperate.
There seemed to be no way in which the holocaust could be prevented.
During the last year (1955) however, a tremendous change
has become apparent in international relationships. A change which makes it
obvious that in spite of the disbelief and ridicule with which they were met,
our visitors are accomplishing the purpose for which they came.
If in future years, the present series of visitations
should, in its turn, become reduced to mere legend, history will nevertheless
record that this era produced, not only the greatest danger which our
civilization has ever faced, but also the greatest advance in our ability to
understand ourselves and each other.
Most of those persons who have, in one way or another,
established contact with extraterrestrial intelligence, or to put it in the usual
way, with beings from other worlds, have, as a result of this contact,
received, among other things, certain somewhat advanced concepts of the
physical science. Too often, however, the recipient of these advanced concepts
is almost or totally unfamiliar with our present position and beliefs in the
scientific field. The result is that when he attempts to make public these
advanced
18
thoughts, they are usually rejected by our scientists on
the ground that there is no apparent connection between them and our present
concepts.
In the physical science of today, the algebraic formula or
equation is the dominant factor. Our greatest scientists are the first to admit
that we have but little actual understanding of the ultimate laws or facts of
the Universe. We do have a great mass of mathematical formulae, by the use of
which we can, with a fair degree of accuracy, predict the results of certain
physical conditions. In recent years, however, there have been comparatively
few attempts to reduce these formulae to simple concepts which can readily be
grasped by the mind. There has been a growing tendency among our scientists to
adopt the attitude that "if we know what happens, and how it happens, then
there is no need for us to concern ourselves with why it happens." In
other words, we have a great deal of knowledge but very little understanding.
This book is being written with the hope that it may bring
a little of the light of simple understanding to bear upon a few of our more
puzzling mathematical 'laws,' and to demonstrate that a pathway can be laid
from our present, rather confused position, to the firmer ground of the new age
of science.
For thousands of years man has dreamed of the day when, at
last, he will break the bonds of his terrestrial prison and soar freely out
into space, to explore at
19
will, the utmost reaches of a boundless universe. The time
has come when man is about to realize this ambition of the ages. Men now living
will stand upon the surface of Mars and Venus, and a few will observe at close
range the fourteen major planets which orbit about those next nearest
luminaries known to us as Alpha and Proxima Centuari.
Man's attempt to escape from the irksome confines of his
tiny planet has always been hampered by his lack of understanding of four of
the basic factors of the universe: gravity, space, time and energy. It has
always seemed that there was too much of gravity and space, and not enough of
energy or time. About the year nineteen hundred and five, however, it was
brought to man's attention that these factors were not the absolute and
independent entities that he had always considered them, but that they were
variable factors, the value of each of which depended upon the value of the
others. Thus the first faint light of understanding began to struggle through
the dense screen of absolute determinism which had been erected about the
physical or material science.
Unfortunately, our men of science, instead of pursuing
this bright gleam of truth, attempted, from force of habit, to shape it into
the common pattern of knowledge, by reducing it to mathematical formula which
could be used without the necessity of understanding it. We are nearing the
limit of the progress which can
20
be made through blind knowledge. If we are to reach the
stars we must forget for a time many of the things which we think we know, and
strive to learn instead what we can understand.
Those who open this book with the hope of finding herein a
blueprint for the construction of a space ship may be disappointed, for no such
blueprint will be found within these pages. While I am convinced that such a
craft will be built within the next ten years, I have no desire to accept the
responsibility which will devolve upon the individual who first builds one. It
is interesting, however, and perhaps helpful to consider and discuss the basic
physical concepts necessary for the construction and operation of a true space
vehicle.
21
CHAPTER ONE
It might be wise, first to devote a little time to the
consideration of what we will call the `nonlinearity of physical law.'
A few years ago, our physical laws were considered to be
linear. That is: we had, by trial and error, by observation and test, developed
a set of laws which apparently held true for all of the small segment of
nature, which we were able to observe at the time. We assumed, therefore, that
these laws would hold true in any segment of nature, no matter how far removed
from our point of observation. When, however, the study of physics moved into the
microcosm, that is, when we began to examine the interior of the atom, we found
there a set of laws which did not agree with those to which we had been
accustomed. They too appeared to be linear, but operated at an angle to our
established laws. The same disturbing situation was discovered in the
macrocosm. When our astronomers developed the giant telescope capable of
peering many
22
millions of light years into space, they found there,
still another set of laws operating apparently at an angle to both of the
others. For a time, we attempted to accustom ourselves to the existence of
three sets of physical laws, each set linear within its own range of
observation, but each set operating angularly with respect to the others. Then,
with the development of the principles of relativity, we began to realize, or
at least we should have realized, that these different sets of linear laws were
not actually linear, nor were they different sets of laws, but that they were
simply three segments of the one great curve of natural law. As long as we were
dealing with quantities which could be observed with the unaided eye or with
simple instruments, we were unable to detect the curvature, because the segment
we were observing constituted such a tiny portion of the curve that its
deviation from linearity was too slight to be detected. For most practical
purposes connected with the ordinary mechanics of our daily lives, these laws
are still considered to be linear. Calculations are simpler when they are so
considered, and the resulting error is negligible. For the same reason, a
surveyor who is surveying a small residence lot does not find it necessary to
take into consideration the curvature of the earth, because the error resulting
from this neglect is not detectable even by the most sensitive of his
instruments. If, however, the surveyor is to make accurate measurements of
23
large areas such as a State or a Continent, it does become
imperative to consider the curvature of the earth's surface, and to do this, of
course, it is necessary to have a reasonably accurate knowledge of the radius
of that curvature.
The necessity of an accurate determination of the radius
of curvature of the natural laws was first realized perhaps by the late Dr.
Einstein, who devoted a large part of his life's work to this problem. The
results which he obtained have filled a number of text books, and have been of
inestimable value in the progress of the physical science. They proved to be
the key which opened the door to the utilization of nuclear energy, and as soon
as a successful effort is made to reduce these mathematical formulae to simple
concepts easily grasped by the mind, these concepts, together with the
additional truths which will then become self evident, will open the door to
space travel with a surety and ease which we would now find hardly possible
even to imagine.
The difficulty with our present mathematical approach to
the problem of relativity lies not in any error of the mathematics themselves,
but in the fact that the methods and terms used in the attempt to explain them,
often lead to incorrect thinking and assumptions.
For example: the best known formula perhaps, which has
emerged from the study of relativity, is the expression E =MC2 which
simply states that the quantity
24
of energy (in ergs) which is inherent in any mass, is
equal to the number of grams of that mass, multiplied by the square of the
quantity C. The quantity C is considered to be a constant, in fact the only
constant which has survived in a relativistic world.
In almost every text book on physics in the world today
the statement is made that the quantity C represents the velocity of light (in
centimeters per second), yet every student in the world who has studied the
subject, knows that the velocity of light is not a constant. That its velocity,
in fact, varies slightly with each different medium through which it is
propagated. Any student who has ever passed a beam of sunlight through a prism
to produce a spectrum of color, has demonstrated that not only does the velocity
of light vary in different media, but that the change in velocity varies
somewhat with the frequency of the light when propagated in material media.
This of course is the principal upon which all of our spectroscopes are
designed, although most textbooks state merely that the light is refracted or
'bent' in passing from one medium to another. There are many who will dispute
the statement that the change in velocity varies with the frequency, but when
sufficiently precise tests are made. entirely within a single medium, the
results indicate convincingly that this is true.
At this point most students will remark that the quantity
C refers to the velocity of light in a perfect
25
vacuum, but where in the universe can we find a perfect
vacuum in which to test this assertion? Astronomers and physicists have
estimated that even in the remotest depths of intergalactic space there will
probably be found, from three to seven nuclear or atomic particles per cubic
centimeter. A beam of light traveling at approximately 3x1010
centimeters per second would still encounter a rather large number of such
particles during each second of its journey. While it is true that the
proportionate decrease in velocity which would be produced by this minute
concentration of matter is so small that it might be negligible for all
practical purposes of measurement, nevertheless it demonstrates the fact that
we have chosen as our sole remaining 'constant,' a quantity which actually can
never be a perfect constant anywhere in the known universe.
Fortunately there is a value to which the quantity C can
be assigned which is a constant. Moreover the assignment of the quantity C to
this factor makes possible a much better understanding of the natural laws
involved in the propagation of energy.
The quantity C is actually the kinetic energy equivalent
of the mass energy of matter. In other words, if we take a gram (or any other
quantity of matter: Newtonian mass) and convert that matter gradually into
energy according to the formula E=MC2, and if the resultant energy,
as it appeared, were constantly
26
applied to the remaining matter in such a way as to
accelerate it uniformly in a given direction, when all the matter had been so
converted we would find that we had zero Newtonian mass, infinite inertial
mass, and a resultant velocity equal to the quantity C, or approximately 3x1010
centimeters per second (with respect to the given reference or starting point).
The maximum velocity attained would always be the same regardless of the
quantity of matter with which we started. This is a fact which can easily be
verified by anyone who is mathematically inclined, and who is familiar with the
laws of acceleration. The energy required to accelerate each gram of mass to
the velocity C through energy conversion is exactly equal to the total energy
inherent in any matter having that mass.
This fact forms the true basis of the statement in our
present day physics that the velocity C is a maximum or limiting velocity,
since it represents the greatest kinetic energy differential which can exist
between two given reference points. Since a good understanding of this concept
is of great importance, it will be referred to again, and discussed more fully
in the chapters on energy and matter.
We must always remember that our ordinary physical laws,
as they are usually expressed, do not hold true when carried to an extent which
permits the error to be measured, because they do not follow a straight line
reaching to infinity, but a curve of finite radii. In a
27
timeless universe, this curve would be represented by a
circle, but since the laws operate through time as well as space, the curve is
more readily understood if depicted as a 'sine wave.' In this case the base
line of the wave represents zero, and the portions above and below the line
represent the positive and negative aspects of the law.
Thus we see that there are points and conditions in which
the natural laws reach zero value with respect to a given reference point, and
that beyond these points the laws become negative, reversing their effect with
respect to the observer.
The constant repetition of the term 'reference point' or
'observer' is necessary to emphasize the frequently unrecognized fact that none
of the basic factors of nature have any reality or significance except when
considered from a specified position or condition.
28
CHAPTER TWO
Perhaps the greatest obstacle to man's achievement of his
dream of space travel has been a factor which has been given the name of
Gravity. Its 'discovery' is usually credited, in elementary school text books,
to a seventeenth century mathematician and physicist, Sir Isaac Newton.
Actually, of course, every man 'discovers' gravity soon after birth; and the stone
age man who first roiled a boulder down upon the head of the cave bear who was
attempting to scramble up the cliff after him, was making a practical
application of this force. It was, however, Sir Isaac Newton who first made a
complete mathematical analysis of the subject. His conclusions were compatible
with subsequent observation and test, and were virtually unchallenged until the
dawn of the era of relativity.
In brief, his conclusions were that gravity is a quality
which is inherent in all matter, and that it manifests itself as a mutual
attraction between all bodies of
29
matter. The value of this attraction between any two given
bodies was said to be directly proportionate to the product of their mass, and
inversely proportionate to the square of the distance between them. The
attraction between the earth and an object near its surface is known as the
weight of the object. The difficulty with the statement that the force varies
inversely as the square of the distance lies in the implication that if the
distance becomes zero, the force should become infinite. Thus it would at first
seem that a man standing or lying upon the surface of the earth would be one of
two bodies between whom the distance was zero, therefore, the weight of the man
should be infinitely great. The reply to this assumption is that the force acts
as though it originated at the center of the mass, called the `center of
gravity,' and that. the man on the surface of the earth is still some four
thousand miles from its center of gravity. This explanation, however, creates a
new problem in that, if we accept it literally, we must assume that if there
were a well or shaft extending to the center of the earth. and if a man
descended this shaft, his weight would increase as he approached the center of
gravity, becoming infinite as he reached it. Actually, of course, his weight
would decrease, becoming zero when his center of gravity coincided with that of
the earth. So we are forced to the further explanation that gravity is
inherent, not in `bodies,' but in particles of matter, and
30
since a man at the center of the earth would have an equal
number of particles attracting him from every direction, the resultant of the
forces would be zero.
If we assume the gravity to reside independently within
each atom, our problem is solved as far as the man and the earth are concerned,
but if we look within the atom itself in the attempt to find the point where
the distance becomes zero, and the force infinite, we find that the same
problem again confronts us. We have not solved it, we have only changed our
scale of observation. There is conclusive evidence that the attraction, called
the binding energy, which exists between the Newtonian particles, (the protons
and the neutrons) is intense almost beyond our ability to describe. This force,
however, does not increase uniformly with increasing mass, but at certain
points not only reaches zero but actually becomes negative.
We can demonstrate this fact by adding a single unit of
Newtonian mass, a neutron, to the nucleus of an atom of Uranium 235. When this
is done, we find that the gravitational force within the nucleus, instead of
increasing actually becomes negative, that is, the attraction between its parts
becomes a repulsion, and the parts begin to separate with considerable
brisance. During the expansion, however, several new centers of gravity are
formed, which, because of the smaller amount of mass involved in each, are
strongly positive. The result is that two or more simpler atoms are
31
formed, plus a few neutrons which have acquired too great
a velocity to be captured by this regrouping process.
This phenomenon, if carefully examined and considered,
will furnish several strong clues to the nature of gravity itself, but let us
for the moment, content ourselves with the observation that it demonstrates
that a gravitational field can, under certain conditions, become negative.
Because of the manner in which our gravitational laws have
been expressed, it has commonly been assumed that a gravitational force can
manifest itself only as an attraction between two bodies of matter. This is
not, however, a necessity of thought, since there is no logical reason why it
should necessarily be true In fact if it were true, it would set gravitational
fields apart as the only force fields with which we are familiar which could
not produce a repulsion, as well as an attraction between bodies of matter. The
reason for the assumption of a universal attraction is simply that all of our
early and limited observations seemed to indicate that this was true. However,
as we have already mentioned, any number of observations, if made on a
sufficiently limited scale, will tend to indicate that the earth is flat,
rather than spherical.
For many years a school of thought existed which
recognized that gravitational fields, like all other fields, must possess a
dual polarity, They called these poles,
32
gravity and levity. They assumed that some objects and
materials normally possessed the quality of gravity, while others normally
possessed the quality of levity. An object possessing levity would be repelled
by all objects possessing gravity. The theory eventually became discredited,
and was almost universally discarded, not because it was ever disproved, but
because so many attempts had been made to assign this quality of levity to objects
and materials which did not actually possess it. For instance it was, for a
time, assumed that gases such as hydrogen and helium possessed levity because
when they were contained in a light bag or envelope, they were observed to rise
against the gravitational field. It was soon demonstrated, however, that their
rise was caused, not by any quality of levity, but simply because of the fact
that their specific gravity was less than that of the air they displaced. After
a number of unsuccessful attempts to assign the quality of levity to specific
materials or objects, the theory fell into disrepute to the extent that the
very word levity has become synonymous with humorous nonsense. Nevertheless,
the philosophers who developed the theory were perfectly correct in their
primary postulate. They erred only in failing to realize that gravity and
levity are not properties of specific materials but are conditions under which
all matter may come.
We have now observed negative gravitation in the
33
microcosm (the interior of the atom), we also observe it
in the macrocosm, (between the galaxies).
Many technical articles have been written in recent years
concerning "Our Expanding Universe," yet where, in any of them, can
we find any logical explanation or reason why it should expand at all? Under
the theory of universal attraction, all of the matter in the universe should be
rapidly coalescing into one gigantic lump. Instead, we find that every one of
the large groups of stars which we call 'galaxies,' is rapidly retreating from
every other group, at velocities which increase with their distance from the
observer. Velocities of recession exceeding 25,000 miles per second have been
calculated.
A number of interesting but hardly convincing theories
have been advanced in the attempt to reconcile the observed state of the
universe with the existing concept of universal attraction. Some of our cosmic
theorists have proposed that at one time all of the matter in the universe was
contained in a single tremendous star, or 'atom.' For some reason, which is not
given this atom exploded, hurling outward the matter which has become the star
clusters, and imparting to them the motion which we now observe, several
billions of years later. Since this theory will be discussed further in
succeeding chapters, we will only point out here that such a theory will not
stand up when examined under our linear concept of physical
34
law. In the first place, such an inconceivably huge mass
of matter, even at the very great temperature which was assumed for it, would,
under Newtonian laws, produce a gravitational field so intense that no velocity
less than that of light itself would be an `escape' velocity. In fact it has
been calculated that even the light emitted by this huge sun would not escape
completely, but would circle in a comparatively small orbit about it. Through
the concept of the curvature of physical law, however, we see that the addition
of mass to an existing body does not, necessarily, increase the force of
attraction between its parts, but may, under certain conditions, cause the
field to become negative, and the attraction to become a repulsion. We can
explain the observed actions of the present universe by postulating that an
attraction exists between the individual bodies within a galaxy, because their
total mass and distance is such that they are within the positive portion of
the gravitation curve with respect to each other. In the vast spaces between
the galaxies however, the curve dips below the zero line, with the result that a
repulsion exists between the galaxies themselves. This also explains why
matter, although rather evenly distributed throughout the known universe, is
not distributed uniformly, but is found in quite similar concentrations at
comparatively regular distances.
At this point we hear someone say, "These explanations
35
may be very interesting to the astronomer or to the
theoretical physicist, but how can they help us in achieving space
travel?" The answer is, of course, that we must have some understanding of
the physical laws before we can make the proper use of them in attaining our
own personal ambitions.
In his dream of space travel, man has generally considered
only three possibilities of escaping from the earth. First, gravity must be
destroyed. That is, the operation of the gravitational field must cease between
the space craft and the earth, so that it will not hinder the departure of the
craft. While a number of highly imaginative stories have been written along
this line of thought, no theory has ever been evolved, or test conducted which
could give us any hope that such a condition can be achieved.
Despairing of the first possibility, we pass on to the
second. Gravity must be shielded. Some type of screening material must be
interposed between the craft and the earth to cut off or absorb the
gravitational field so that while it still exists, it will no longer act upon
the craft. Here again we have found imagination raising our hopes, and reality
disappointing, for no material has been discovered which shows any promise of
fulfilling such a function. With our hopes considerably subdued, we pass on to
the third possibility. Gravity must be overcome. We must apply a greater force,
so that we can rise against the pull of gravity, even
36
though we must pay an exorbitant tribute of energy for
each foot of progress. In this last plan, we have a slight degree of initial
success. Rocket motors have fought and struggled their way upward against the
implacable, if impersonal, pull of the earth's gravitational field, for
distances of up to two hundred and fifty miles. `'While this is a very small
step toward complete escape from the earth, the fact that any progress at all
could be achieved, has so stimulated the age old ambition, that science is now
devoting a large portion of its total efforts to this 'last hope of escape.'
When man attempts to attain his ends by pitting one
natural law against another, he usually finds that it is a wasteful and
laborious process. While it is true that it is perfectly possible to propel a
rowboat by throwing rocks from the stern, it is not a method which an
intelligent man would choose if he were aware of other possibilities. In the
first place, the thrown rock must accelerate, not only the boat, but all the
rocks which remain to be thrown. If a long journey were planned, the greatest
problem would be to find enough room in the boat to store the required number
of rocks. Since the thrust produced is equal to the mass of the rock multiplied
by the velocity of its ejection, it is obvious that there are three limiting
factors. First, there is the total mass of the available rocks, which is
limited by the size of the boat which contains them. Second, there is the total
amount of energy available. (This is a
37
factor only because we have so little understanding of the
true nature of energy.) The third, and at the present time the most serious
factor, is the limited mechanical strength of the throwing arm.
In a rocket motor, the 'rocks' are represented by a gas
produced by combining or 'burning' the fuels within the combustion chamber, The
gas, at a high temperature and pressure, is expelled through an opening or 'venturi'
in the stern. Since the amount of fuel is limited by the size of the rocket,
the only means of increasing the total thrust is to increase the velocity of
ejection, but this can only be accomplished by increasing the temperature and
pressure of the gas within the combustion chamber. Regardless of the amount of
energy which is available, the amount of thrust which can be produced is
limited by the ability of the chamber to withstand the temperatures and
pressures involved. Since these limits are reached (and often exceeded) by
ordinary chemical energies, it is clear that the vastly greater energies
available in nuclear reactions are, at the present time at least, of academic
interest only to the rocket engineer. In the case of craft which remained in
our atmosphere, of course, more 'rocks' could be taken aboard while in flight,
by scooping up the atmosphere through which the ship was traveling, and
allowing the surplus energy to act upon it. In space flight, however, this is
not possible, and it is hardly likely that the efficiency of the rocket motor
can be
38
increased sufficiently in the near future to permit of
practical or economical space travel.
Actually, the rocket has been obsolete for centuries.
There has not been a single basic advance in the rocket concept since the year
1214 A.D., when the invading hordes of Genghis Khan were met by the .military
ordnance rockets of the Chinese defenders in their walled cities, more than
seven hundred years ago. True, we have produced stronger combustion chambers,
we have improved slightly the shape of the venturi, and we have developed fuels
with considerably higher specific impulse, but we have done nothing to advance
the basic concept. We are still propelling our boat by throwing rocks over the
stern.
Men now living will stand upon the surface of Mars and
Venus, but they will not go there in a rocket. There are better and simpler
ways.
It is time to reexamine our position to see if there is
not something we have overlooked. Have we forgotten the old saying, "If
you can't. lick 'em join 'em?"
We have tried for centuries to 'lick' the force of
gravity. We have tried to destroy it, and failed. We have searched for some
method of shielding ourselves from its effect. We have not discovered it. We
have attempted to overcome it by opposing it with superior force, and found it
a wasteful and cumbersome process. Isn't it about time we gave up the idea of
fighting the
39
force of gravity, and began to consider the possibilities
of making use of it?
We have learned that gravity, like all natural factors,
has a negative, as well as a positive value. If after building our space craft,
we could arrange conditions so that the ship was in the negative portion of the
gravitational curve, it would fall away from the earth as easily and as
naturally as a stone dropped from a tower falls toward the earth.
Of course, we hear at once the objection that, while
negative gravitational fields have been shown to exist, they have been found
only within the atom and at inter-galactic distances. How can we place a space
ship within the negative portion of the curve, with respect to the earth? The
answer to this question lies in the fact that, as we have already learned, the
natural laws are not absolute, but relative. That is, the size and shape of the
curve of one law is dependent upon the value and position of the others. We
have seen that the nucleus of the atom of uranium 235 dips below the zero line
with the addition of only one mass unit, making a total of 236, yet the nucleus
of the atom of uranium 238, although close to the zero line is still on the
positive side of the curve because of the fact that the shape of the
gravitational curve is modified not only by the mass present but also by the
number and position of the electrical charges.
Lest someone charge us with ignorance by pointing
40
out that there are the same number of electrons (92) in
each of these atoms, we will make haste to state that we refer not only to the
charges in the outer shell of the atom but to those within as well, and
especially to the fact, not always realized, that the neutron possesses both a
positive and a negative charge, although when united within the neutron they
are not discernable as charges, but exist as energy which produces the
gravitational field).
When we acquire a better understanding of the laws, we
will be able to produce any shape of curve we desire, with the earth as one
reference point and the spacecraft as the other.
Suppose you were to hand a bar magnet and a similar bar of
soft iron to a man who was intelligent, but uneducated, with the request that
he examine and test the two objects in order to determine their properties. One
of the properties which the researcher would be certain to list would be the
'inherent' property of mutual attraction between the two objects. He would
observe that when either end of one bar approached either end of the other bar,
a condition of attraction was observed. He would probably conclude that the
attraction was an inherent quality of these objects, and that it would continue
to persist regardless of anything which could be done.
We know, of course, that if a length of insulated wire
were wound around the soft iron bar, and a
41
flow of electrons were induced in the winding, the two
bars could be made to exhibit a repulsion as readily as an attraction. Note
that in this case we have not destroyed the field of the permanent magnet, we
have not shielded the field, nor have we overcome it. We have simply produced a
field which is in opposition to it, or to state the case more concisely, we
have polarized the field, by placing one end of the soft iron bar within the
negative portion of the magnetic curve with respect to each end of the
permanent magnet which is already so polarized.
The same possibility exists with respect to gravitational
fields except that the results are not obtained in quite the same way. It is
not too difficult, however, to work out means of polarizing a gravitational
field, once we discard the old assumption that it is impossible.
42
SUMMARY
To sum up as concisely as possible, the conclusions
reached in our discussion of the factor of nature which we call gravity, we
will propose the following corrections and additions to the gravitational
theory as it is now commonly taught.
1. The law of gravity is not a linear law but follows a
curve common to all factors of nature.
2. The gravitational field does not diminish precisely as
the square of the distance as Newton believed, but because of the curvature of
natural law, it diminishes normally at a slightly greater rate so that it
reaches zero value, not at infinity as is usually supposed, but at a finite
distance or degree of separation. Beyond this distance or degree of separation
the force becomes negative.
3. We can define a gravitational field as negative when
the application of the factor called time tends to increase the degree of
separation between any two reference points in the factor called matter.
4. The value of the gravitational field at any given point
is controlled by the values of the other factors of nature at that point.
43
5. The electric charges within the atom are a factor which
modulates the shape of the gravitational curve of the nucleus.
6. Gravity is not the enemy of space travel. It is a
friend, but there must be true understanding before the friendship can bear
fruit.
7. It is perfectly possible to produce a negative
gravitational field between the earth and a given object on or near its surface
by the proper application of moving electric charges. Such a field would be
effective only with respect to the given object. All other matter in the
vicinity would remain within the positive portion of the curve.
44
CHAPTER THREE
Much of the confusion which exists in our scientific
concepts today is brought about by our failure to distinguish carefully between
matter and mass. Until a comparatively few years ago, it was assumed that mass
was a property which was exhibited only by matter. Upon closer examination,
however, it appeared that energy also possessed mass, since when energy was
added to a body, of matter, the mass of the body was increased.
We should, perhaps, pause at this point to define the
terms which we are using lest we add to the confusion instead of resolving it.
Mass is defined as resistance to change in the existing state of motion. It is
measured by the amount of the energy which is required to produce a given
change in velocity. All matter has the property of mass, but not all mass has
the properties of matter. For the purposes of this discussion, we will
postulate that there are two types of mass, inertial
45
mass, which is simply the property of resistance to change
in a state of motion, and the mass inherent in matter, which we will call
Newtonian mass, because it includes all mass which obeys the original laws laid
down by Sir Isaac Newton. Since the reader may be under the impression that all
mass obeys the Newtonian laws, let us pause here long enough to examine the
facts and to point out the differences in the properties of inertial and
Newtonian mass.
All physicists of today are agreed that the electron has
mass. Yet if it were possible for us to hold an electron between two of our
fingers and then suddenly release it, we would find that there was not the
slightest tendency for the electron to fall to the earth (unless the surface
happened to be positively charged at the moment). The electron is not in the
least affected by the gravitational field of the earth, so long as it is at
rest with respect to that field (if the electron is moving through the field,
however, the direction of the motion will be affected).
The electron has mass only because it has an electric charge.
As we know, when an electric charge is accelerated in space, a magnetic field
is produced, and energy is required to produce this field. The energy 'spent'
in producing this field, is said to be the 'mass' of the electron, since it is
the entire cause of its resistance to acceleration. The greater the degree of
acceleration, of course, the more intense the field, and the
46
greater the amount of energy required to produce it. So we
say that the electron gains `mass' with every increase in its velocity. If an
electron could be accelerated to the velocity C, (commonly called the velocity
of light), it would have acquired the maximum velocity with which energy can be
propagated. It is obvious, therefore, that no amount of energy could further
accelerate this electron. (with respect to its original reference point), so it
would be considered to have acquired 'infinite' mass.
Let us take time to examine this statement carefully,
since it is a point upon which there is much confusion. The electron would have
acquired infinite mass only in reference to its original energy level. If
observed from a reference point which had itself received the same degree of
acceleration, the mass of the electron would not have changed a particle. This
increase of inertial mass with increasing velocity, is simply the measure of
the kinetic energy differential between the observer and the point which he is
observing.
We will attempt a simple analogy, in the hope of making
this more readily understood. An observer is stationed in 'free space' far from
any gravitational or other fields which might affect the results of the
experiment which he proposes to make. He has in one hand, a sphere of cork or
other light material which has a mass of 10 grams. In the other hand he has a
pistol which fires bullets also having a mass of 10
47
grams and a velocity of 1000 feet per second. The man
holds the ball out at arms length, and fires a bullet from the gun into it. The
bullet is not absorbed by the cork, but shares its kinetic energy with it, so
that after the impact, the bullet and the cork ball each have a velocity of 500
feet per second. The observer now fires a second bullet at the cork. This
bullet also has a velocity of 1000 feet per second with respect to the
observer, but now the target has a velocity of 500 feet per second in the same
direction, so that there is a differential of only 500 feet per second which
the bullet can share with its target. After this impact, the bullet and the
ball each have a velocity of 750 feet per second. When the observer fires the
third bullet, he finds that now there is a differential of only 250 feet per
second between it and the target, so that the velocity of the target is raised
by only 125 feet per second, and so on.
The observer notes that each succeeding bullet, although
it has the same energy with respect to him, produces a smaller and smaller
acceleration in the target. He would observe that the 'mass of the target' (its
resistance to acceleration) appears to increase with its velocity. If he made
mathematical calculations based upon his observations, they would show that the
greatest velocity which he could ever induce in the target would be 1000 feet
per second (the velocity of the bullets), and that to produce this velocity it
would be necessary to fire an infinite number of bullets. His
48
experiment demonstrates conclusively that as the velocity
of the target approaches 1000 feet per second, his ability to further
accelerate it approaches zero. Persons with lesser intelligence or insight than
our observer might be convinced that this figure of 1000 feet per second was an
absolute and inescapable limit. The observer, however, as we said, has greater
understanding. After he has accelerated his target to the 'limiting' velocity
of 1000 feet per second (by firing an infinite number of bullets), he steps
aboard a small space ship (with which he has thoughtfully provided himself),
and takes off in the direction of the target. He accelerates his ship to a
velocity of 1000 feet per second, with respect to his starting point, and now
finds that he is back upon exactly the same energy level as his target, and he
can begin his shooting all over again. He observes that his first bullet
accelerates the target to a velocity of 500 feet per second with respect to his
new reference point, and he notes that the 'infinite mass' of the target
returns to its original 10 grams, as soon as he reaches the same energy level.
He realizes then that the 'increasing mass' of the target is only the measure
of the kinetic energy differential which exists between them. The mass
approaches infinity only as the energy level approaches that of the
accelerating force. (In this case it is 1000 feet per second.) In the case of
the quantity C, usually tailed the velocity of light, the differential is equal
to the
49
total energy inherent in matter, (about 3 x 1010
centimeters per second or 9 x 1020 ergs per gram.) It is, therefore,
a maximum or limiting velocity, but only with respect to a given reference
point.
In our discussion of non-linearity of physical law, it was
pointed out that the energy inherent in a gram, or any other quantity of matter
is precisely the quantity of energy necessary to accelerate its mass to a
velocity equal to the quantity C by energy conversion. This statement may be
hotly disputed by some students who have not yet learned to distinguish between
matter and mass. Their argument is to the effect that no mass can ever be
accelerated to the velocity of light since the mass would then be `infinite'
and consequently the energy required to produce the velocity would also be
`infinite.' The incorrectness of this assumption can be demonstrated simply by
pressing the button of a pocket flashlight. A beam of light will be produced
which any physicist will agree has mass and which, by its very definition, is
moving at the velocity of light. Yet all the energy required is released by a
small amount of chemical change taking place within the cells of a battery.
50
CHAPTER FOUR
Among all of the great basic factors of the Universe,
perhaps the most difficult to define or explain is that which we call space.
While many of our greatest philosophers and scientists have attempted
definitions, few have succeeded in offering anything which the average mind
could readily grasp. The German mathematician Leibnitz said, "Space is
simply the order or relation of things among themselves." Several
centuries afterwards, the late Dr. Einstein used almost identical terms.
"Space has no objective reality except as an order or arrangement of the
objects we perceive in it."
The average man's definition of space is: "That in
which matter can be placed" or "that which matter occupies."
This last definition is subject to dispute by those who maintain that matter
does not occupy space, but is itself, only a warp or distortion in space.
Another school of thought insists with equal vigor, that while
51
matter does occupy space, it creates a warp or distortion
in the space surrounding it. Since both of these concepts are subject to the
same set of mathematical laws, the same laws can be offered in support of
either. There is little, however, in either of these postulates which seems to
furnish a good foundation for understanding and it is understanding rather than
algebraic formulae that we are seeking in this discussion.
For our purpose, a simple definition will suffice. Space
is that which separates bodies of matter, whether these bodies be atoms,
galaxies or any component part of either. We can extend this definition by
stating that the degree of separation which exists between any two
bodies is determined by the degree of curvature of the natural laws which exist
between them. In making observations, of course, we must remember that, since
the natural laws are relative, the mass of the body itself influences the
degree of curvature. In the theories of relativity given to the world by Dr.
Einstein, the natural laws, in general, retain their linearity, but the space
in which they operate is considered to be curved. This concept offers the
simplest mathematical presentation, since all of the observed deviations from
linearity can thus be explained by a single postulate. Unfortunately, like most
of our mathematical presentations, the concept offers but little for the mind
to grasp. A curved space cannot be pictured mentally, nor can it be drawn upon
paper. There is always something
52
remaining outside the curve. Furthermore, attempts to
rationalize this concept lead to many paradoxical statements which become more
and more evident, the greater the effort to explain.
One of the best efforts to bring to the average mind an
understanding of the principles of relativity, was made by Lincoln Barnett in
his well known book, "The Universe and Dr. Einstein." Because of its
careful preparation and its explicit presentation of present theory however, it
brings out very clearly the paradox which must exist between successive
assumptions. For instance: reference was made, as has already been noted, to
the theory of Abbe Lemaitre, which supposed that at one time all the matter in
the universe was contained in one huge lump or star. Since the curvature of
space is considered to be determined by the amount or density of the matter
present in it, at that time the universe was very small. That is, it had a very
high degree of curvature. Light and other forms of energy do not move outward
from this curve, but follow the circumference, so that the light emitted by
this body, after a comparatively short journey, returned to its starting point.
No attempt was made to speculate upon the length of time in which this body had
existed, or the origin of the matter and energy of which it was composed. The
theory merely supposed that, after perhaps an infinity of quiescence, this body
suddenly exploded. Portions of the mass moved outward
53
in all directions and thereby enlarged the radius of
space. If the radius of space was increased, it is obvious that the matter did
not follow the curvature of space, but actually moved perpendicularly to it,
(or perhaps at a tangent). At any rate, we see that while the radiated energy
followed the 'curvature' of space whose radius was determined by the mass and
density of the matter, when the matter itself expanded, instead of following
the curve, its motion increased the radius.
It is interesting to note that the statement is repeatedly
made that this sudden expansion began about two billion years ago, yet in the
preceding paragraphs it has been stated that the calculated radius of the
universe is now about 35 billion light years. Simple calculation would indicate
then that the universe, or at least that portion which we call space, must have
moved outward at an average velocity equal to about seventeen times the
velocity of light. Either this velocity of expansion is still maintained or at
some period in the past it must have been even greater.*
These statements raise some perplexing questions. In our
theories of relativity it is assumed that light follows the 'curve' of space.
Yet it is difficult to picture
———
* It has since been announced by Walter Baade of the Mount
Wilson and Palomar Observatories that, as a result of the recalibration of the cephid
variable stars, the previously calculated size of the universe must be
increased by a factor of 2.8 However the correction factor also applies to the
time of expansion, so that the rate of expansion remains the same.
54
a photon following a curve whose radius is expanding at a
rate equal to seventeen times the velocity of the particle.
In the book "The Universe and Dr. Einstein" it
is also stated that: while space is expanding rapidly, the matter of the
universe, which is likened to "inelastic patches on the surface of an
expanding balloon," is not expanding with the space, since if it were, we
could not detect the expansion.
If it is space that is expanding, it is difficult
to understand why we have never detected the increasing distance between the
earth and the moon or the sun. No attempt was made to explain why the space
which exists between the individual atoms, and between the component parts of
those atoms, should not expand also.
None of these difficulties, of course, invalidate any of
the mathematical laws from which the concepts have been derived, but they do
emphasize the great need for explanations which are more compatible with reason
and understanding. For instance, in the above case would it not be simpler to
assume that the degree of separation which exists between the Galaxies, when
considered as individual bodies, is apparently increasing because they occupy
opposite portions of the sine curve of natural law?
If we exchange our postulate of linear laws and a 'curved
space' for a concept which incorporates the
55
curvature of natural law, we find that we have not thereby
destroyed or invalidated any of our present mathematics, but we have achieved a
position from which the operation of the natural laws can be pictured by the
mind, and can be charted upon paper. Thus we have taken a great stride in the
direction of understanding.
56
SUMMARY
In summing up our discussion of space we should recall
1. Our definition- Space is that which separates bodies of
matter. This separation is a vector function of the time, energy and mass
differentials.
2. The degree of separation which exists between any two
bodies, or reference points, determines the degree of curvature of the natural
laws between them.
3. The natural laws are relative. That is, the value of
one can be altered between any two reference points by altering the value or
relationship of the other. This last fact should always be borne in mind when
we hear some dogmatist solemnly declare that we are forever barred from
reaching the stars by the hopelessly great degree of separation which exists
between us.
57
CHAPTER FIVE
We have seen that the factor known as the quantity C has a
greater significance than is usually credited to it. It is not merely the
velocity with which light and other forms of energy are propagated in a vacuum.
The quantity C is a degree of energy differential. We can define it as the
maximum differential which can exist between two reference points in the factor
which we call matter. We can also define it as the minimum differential which
can exist between a reference point in matter, and one in energy. This is only
true, however, when the reference point in matter is at the same energy level
as the observer.
One of the postulates of the theory of relativity is that
as a body of matter accelerates and approaches the velocity of light, or a
kinetic energy differential equal to the quantity C with respect to a given
observer, the body loses dimension in the direction of motion. If the velocity
reaches the velocity of light it will appear
58
to have lost all of its dimension in this direction. To
this observer it would no longer be matter, since matter, by definition,
requires three dimensions. The matter would have become energy insofar as the
original observer was concerned since it would now exhibit a kinetic energy
differential equal to the total energy inherent in the original matter.
This statement, however, seems to produce a misconception
in the minds of many students of physics. We will therefore attempt to clarify
the concept by the use of a simple analogy. We will assume that we have three
space ships assembled at a given point upon the surface of the earth, (or at a
given point in space.) For the purpose of this analogy we will assume that the
ships are capable of any desired degree of acceleration. We will dispatch two
of these ships into space, flying side by side in a given direction. We will
launch the remaining craft in the opposite direction in space. We have an
observer upon each of the three craft and a fourth observer who remains at the
point from which they departed. We will designate the ships which departed
together as A and B, the ship which is moving in the opposite direction as C,
and the observer at the starting point as D. When we have accelerated all three
of the ships to a velocity equal to one half that of light, (with respect to
the starting point) we pause to determine what changes, if any, have taken
place. To the observer at the starting point D,
59
the three ships have become slightly shorter in the
direction of their motion, and have gained a small amount of `mass,' but are
otherwise unchanged. The observer upon the ship C, however, discovers that
while he and his own ship appear to be unchanged, the ships A and B have lost
all dimension in the line of motion, because they have reached the velocity C
with respect to his reference point. They have ceased to exist as matter and
have entered the plane of energy. The two observers upon the ships A and B also
note that C has ceased to exist as a material object, but when they examine
themselves and each other, they find that no change whatever has occurred to
them or to their ships since they are all upon exactly the same energy level
and no differential exists between them.
We will now accelerate all three ships to the velocity C
with respect to their starting point D. At this velocity the three ships cease
to exist materially insofar as the observer at D is concerned, since they have
entered the plane of energy, and are also at the zero point of the curve of
time with respect to him. The observer upon the ship C would note that the
ships A and B were again in existence but that they were now in the negative
portion of the curve. Since this concept may prove somewhat difficult to grasp
at the first attempt, it will be explained further and a simple analogy given
in the chapter on Time.
The foregoing analogy also demonstrates that the
60
term velocity has no meaning or significance except as an
observed kinetic energy differential between two specified points of reference.
If we examine this analogy carefully, we will find that we
have demonstrated the most important aspect of the factor which we have named
the quantity C. C is a constant, the only true constant in the universe,
because it is the pivotal point about which the natural laws become manifest.
It is the factor for which many great physicists have spent years of search,
even though they had it constantly in their possession. In short, the quantity
C is the measure of the radius of curvature of natural law. It is the factor
which will enable us to determine precisely the degree of change in the
curvature of one law which will be brought about by a specified change in the
application of the others. It is the factor which will eventually tell us how
to place our spacecraft in either the positive or negative portion of the
gravitational curve with respect to the earth or any other planet which we may
choose to visit.
When we state that the quantity C is the radius of the
curvature of natural law, we mean simply that if a differential of energy equal
to this quantity exists between the observer and the point which he is
observing, the natural laws will be suspended. If the energy differential is in
excess of the quantity C, the laws will appear to operate in reverse at that
point. As we
61
stated earlier, this effect will be demonstrated by a
simple analogy in our discussion of the factor called time.
While we have repeatedly referred to the quantity C as an
energy differential, we have heretofore considered it only in terms of kinetic
energy. Some may believe that it can be reached only when there is a rate of
increase or decrease in the degree of spatial separation between the reference
points, equal to 3x1010 centimeters per second, or in simpler terms,
a velocity equal to that of light. It is necessary therefore to point out the
fact that an energy differential does not necessarily manifest itself as a
velocity. It can also exist as a frequency. Our present laws of physics state
that the energy level upon which an electron, a photon, or other particle
exists is proportionate to its frequency. The mathematical rule is E equals Fh
where E is the energy, F is the frequency and h is a factor called Planck's
constant.
We can now see that a frequency differential which by the
above formula is equal to 9x1020 ergs per gram also represents the
quantity C. When such a frequency differential exists between the observer and
the point which he is observing, we again find that the natural laws at the
observed point reach zero value with respect to the observer. If the frequency
differential exceeds this value, the action of the laws will become negative. A
material object such as a spacecraft upon
62
or near the surface of the earth would cease to exist as
matter and would enter the plane of energy insofar as the observer on earth was
concerned, but as we have previously pointed out, an observer upon or within
the object, whose frequency or energy level had been raised to the same degree
as that of the craft, would be unable to detect any change.
We must clear our minds of the thought block produced by
the assumption that the quantity C is a factor of absolute limit. We must
realize that it is a limiting factor only with respect to two given reference
points, and that it is perfectly possible to conceive of a series of
consecutive reference points between each two of which a differential equal to
the quantity C may exist.
63
CHAPTER SIX
In his examination of the natural laws or facts of the
Universe, man is greatly handicapped by the fact that insofar as time is
concerned, he has never progressed beyond a uni-dimensional perception. Those
who are familiar with the analogies used to explain some portions of the theory
of relativity, will recall that in attempting to achieve a concept of a four
dimensional continuum, the reader is asked first to imagine a man who is
conscious of only one dimension in space. His entire universe consists of a
single line. If a dot were placed on the line in front of him, and one behind,
he would be completely imprisoned, since he would not be able to conceive of
going over or around them. As his intelligence and consciousness developed, he
would eventually become aware of a second dimension, and to imprison him then,
it would be necessary to enclose him in a circle. With further development, he
would become aware of a third dimension in which a sphere would be a prison, and
so on.
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We are now conscious of three dimensions of space, and
have done considerable mathematical reasoning in regard to a fourth.
Unfortunately, insofar as time is concerned, our consciousness has never
progressed beyond the first dimension. We are confined to a single line in
time. We have no concept of lateral motion, nor can we even turn around upon
that line. We can only go forward. Many of the difficulties which we encounter
in our attempt to understand the operation of the natural laws arise because of
our severely restricted concept of the nature of time.
Time has often been referred to as the `fourth dimension'
by those who attempt to explain our present concept of relativity. It is
usually pointed out that, since all known bodies of matter in the Universe are
constantly in motion with respect to each other, if we wish to describe the
position of any body, it is necessary to give a point in time as well as a
spatial relationship to any other body or bodies. There is, however, a more
convincing method of demonstrating that time is a dimension, although we
believe it would be more precise to consider it as the first dimension rather
than the fourth since it is the one dimension in which all motion must take
place. We are at the present, conscious of three dimensions of space, and we
know that motion can take place in any one of the three, but whichever
dimension of space is involved, the motion must also take place in time. Our
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term for the rate of motion is the word velocity, which is
defined as being the degree of change in location per unit of time. If an
object has a velocity of 1000 feet per second, with respect to our point of
observation, we will see that in one thousandth of a second the object will
have moved one foot. In one millionth of a second it will have moved only one
thousandth of a foot, and so on. We can easily see that if the time becomes
zero the motion must also become zero.
The science of photography has reached a state of
development which permits us to take photographs with very short exposure
times. By the stroboscopic method of photography, which is now being superceded
by an even faster method, we were able to take several hundred thousand
consecutive pictures in one second. In these pictures even the fastest
projectile seems frozen into immobility. We have taken pictures of a rifle
bullet penetrating an ordinary electric light bulb, in which three complete and
consecutive pictures have been made between the time the bullet first touched
the bulb and the time that the first crack appeared in the glass. In these
pictures, the bullet appears to be completely motionless. Of course the taking
of the pictures actually did involve a very small elapse of time, and so a very
small amount of motion did occur during the taking, but it again illustrates
the fact that no motion which we can perceive,
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can take place except within that dimension of time of
which we are conscious.
Having pointed out the limitations of our consciousness
concerning this factor which we call time, let us now go back and examine it as
best we can, with that degree of consciousness and understanding which we have.
We will again attempt to choose the simplest possible
definition. We defined space as ‘that which separates bodies of matter,' so we
will define time as 'that which separates events.' (If there is no discernible
separation in this respect, the events are said to be simultaneous.) Of course
we immediately hear the objection that events may be separated by space as well
as by time, or that they may be separated by apace without being separated by
time. This statement, while usually considered to be true, yet forms a
stumbling block which has precipitated many a philosopher into the quagmire of
misunderstanding and paradox. The difficulty arises in our attempt to define
the term simultaneous. If two events are separated by space, how shall we
determine whether or not they are separated by time? The observer cannot be
present at the site of both events, and so must observe one or both of them
through the separation of space, and therefore through the curvature of natural
law which the separation represents. In referring to this problem in the
introduction to his first book on relativity, Dr. Einstein
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pointed out that since our only contact with the world
about us is through our senses, and since all of the knowledge which we have
concerning the universe has come to us through them, if we are to formulate
mathematical rules based upon our observations, we must begin with the
postulate that the things which our senses tell us, are true. If we should
observe, through a large telescope, the creation of a nova in a remote galaxy,
and at the same time observe the eruption of a volcano upon our own earth, we
must assume, for the purpose of our mathematics, that the two events are
simultaneous. This a postulate which is difficult to accept because the faculty
which we call reason immediately interposes the objection that a separation in
space involves an elapse of time between the event and our perception of it. However,
Dr. Einstein points out that if we allow our reason to modify our observations,
we will be evolving a concept whose value is based only upon the validity of
our reason rather than upon the accuracy of our observations. We must postulate
that events which are observed simultaneously, occur simultaneously insofar as
that observer is concerned, and that, therefore, the simultaneity of events is
a condition which depends entirely upon the position of the observer with
respect to those events.
If we examine this concept carefully, we find that time
follows the same curve of natural law which is
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apparent in the operation of all the basic factors of
nature, and again the radius of that curvature is measured by the quantity C. A
simple analogy may serve to make this statement more readily understood.
Suppose we were to start today to build a space ship. We will postulate that
the ship will require one year of our time to build, and that when completed,
it will be capable of infinite acceleration. We will assume that a continuous
supply of energy is available from an outside source, and that the craft will
continue to accelerate so long as this energy acts upon it. During the year
which we spend in building the craft, light is being reflected from us into space,
so that an observer with a telescope stationed at some other point in space
could follow the course of its construction. When we have completed the
construction of our craft we will enter it and take off for a destination which
we will assume to be a planet orbiting about Alpha or Proxima Centauri, our
next nearest suns, about four light years distant. We have a telescope of
unlimited power in the rear of the craft pointed toward the earth which we are
leaving, and another telescope at the front, focused upon the planet which is
our destination. We will set the field strength for a constant acceleration,
and seat ourselves at our telescopes to observe the result. After we have risen
a few miles from the surface, we will, for the purpose of furnishing an
additional reference point, eject from the craft and its
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field, a cannon ball or other sphere of metal which has
been specially painted so that it can readily be observed from any distance
with the aid of our unlimited telescopes. Since we had not yet reached escape
velocity when the ball was ejected, we will observe that it soon begins to fall
back to earth.
As we continue to accelerate, we will observe that the
kinetic energy differential which we are producing between ourselves and our
points of observation is producing exactly the effect upon time which is
predicted by our postulate of the curvature of natural law. Since the distance
or degree of separation between ourselves and the earth is increasing with
time, the energy differential is negative, which means that the natural laws at
the observed point will be displaced towards the base or zero line of the sine
curve, insofar as our observations are concerned. If we reach a velocity equal
to one half that of light, and then observe a clock on earth through our
telescope, we will see that in ten hours of our time, only five hours have been
recorded by the earth clock. If we observe the test sphere which we ejected
during our take off, (assuming that it has not yet reached the ground) we will
see that it is not falling at the rate predicted by our laws of gravitation,
but at a rate only half as great. We will also observe that the sphere is not
accelerating at the rate predicted by our laws, nor even at half that rate.
Since we ourselves are still accelerating, the observed
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acceleration of the sphere is diminished by a factor which
is proportionate to ours. We must remember that we can only observe events
through the light which is emitted or reflected by the objects concerned with
those events, and if we ourselves have a motion equal to one half that velocity
in the direction in which the light is moving, then a column or sequence of
light impulses which were emitted from the earth during a five hour period,
would require ten hours to pass our point of observation.
When the velocity of our craft reaches that of light with
respect to the earth, there will be a negative energy differential, equal to
the quantity C, existing between us and our point of observation. We will
observe that all natural laws upon the earth have reached zero value with
respect to us. All motion and all changes have ceased. If we observe our test
sphere we will see that gravity is no longer acting upon it, since it has
ceased to fall. All laws of motion are in abeyance and the factor which we call
time has ceased to have any significance.
To make these observations, of course, we would require
one of the new telescopes which operates on the retention of vision principle,
where the last image to arrive remains upon the viewing screen until a new
light image arrives to change it. When we reach the velocity C, no new light
will arrive, hence the picture will not change until we change our velocity.
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Since we postulated at the beginning of this analogy that
our craft was capable of unlimited acceleration, and since the postulated force
continues to act, our velocity will continue to increase and we will have
between ourselves and the earth, a rate of increase in the degree of separation
which is greater than that specified by the quantity C. We can do this from our
point of reference although, as will be explained later, we cannot do it from
the point of view of an observer upon the earth. When we have passed through
the velocity C, a startling change occurs in our observations. We no longer
observe the earth from the telescope at the rear of the craft. The earth now
appears in the telescope at the front, and we are no longer leaving the earth,
we are now approaching it. We will see a craft which is identical to ours, and
which is indeed our own craft, detach itself from us and move back toward earth
ahead of us at a rate which is proportionate to our excess over the velocity C.
If we observe the earth, we discover that all natural laws are operating in
reverse. If we observe the test sphere we will see that it is now falling away
from the earth rather than towards it. Gravity between the earth and the sphere
has become negative with respect to our point of reference as have all
the natural laws. We observe this through the forward telescope rather than
that at the rear, because we are now overtaking the light which had passed us
before we had reached
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the velocity C, and since we are now overtaking it, we
encounter first the light which had passed us last. All events occur in reverse,
just as would the scenes in a motion picture film which is being run backwards.
If we complete our journey to the planet which is our
destination, at an average velocity equal to 4 times C, we will arrive with an
elapsed time of one year as measured by the clocks on our own craft. During the
journey, however, we will observe the elapse of five years of time upon the
planet which we are approaching, and the elapse of three years of negative time
upon the earth which we are leaving. In other words we will arrive at our
destination three years before we left the earth. If immediately upon our
arrival we seat ourselves at a telescope of sufficient power to observe the
earth at close range, we will see ourselves going about the daily tasks which
we performed two years before we began to build the space craft in which we
made the journey. If we then focus the telescope upon the proper point in space
we will see ourselves in our space craft, flying backwards toward the earth.
We are now in a position from which we can observe the
sine curve nature of all natural law, and to measure precisely the radius of
the curvature. If we observe the earth, we see that time there is positive.
That is: it is moving in the direction which we consider normal. Since there is
no significant energy
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differential, the time rate is essentially the
same, but because of the degree of spatial separation there will be a
displacement along the time curve, between the observer and the point which he
is observing. According to our theory of the curvature of natural law, this
displacement should be equal to D divided by C, where D is the distance and C
is our basic factor. In the case of our present observation the distance is
equal to 4C Years, which if divided by C will equal 4 years, which is precisely
the degree of displacement which we observe. If we now turn our attention to
the space craft, we find that we are observing it through an energy
differential which exceeds the quantity C and therefore the craft is within the
negative portion of the curve, and all natural laws will be operating in
reverse at that point. We are now in a unique position, in that we now can,
from a single point in time or at least from a single point in the only
dimension of time of which we are conscious, observe ourselves occupying three
rather widely separated positions in space, First: our position at the
telescope as the observer. At this point time is positive. Second, our position
on the surface of the earth. Here time is also positive but has a negative displacement
upon the time curve which is equal to four years. Third, our position in the
space craft: here time is negative, as demonstrated by the fact that we observe
it flying backwards toward the earth, and all actions taking place within
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it occur in reverse order. This is, of course, due to the
fact that the craft had a velocity greater than that of C and so was constantly
leaving behind the light which was emitted or reflected from it. As we observe
the craft from our new reference point, the last light which it emitted arrives
first.
If we continue to observe for several years, we will
eventually see ourselves build the craft and take off into space. At the same
time we can see ourselves in the same craft hurtling backward through space
toward the inevitable meeting point where the past and the future join to
become the present. Since we are observing ourselves simultaneously occupying
three different positions in space, we can readily see that we are forced to a
concept of time which includes more than one dimension. If we continue to
observe the two craft, we will see that the one which is moving away from us is
constantly slowing down, while the one coming toward us from the earth is
accelerating. At the instant in which the velocity of the receding craft
reaches zero, the approaching craft will reach it, coincide with it, and both
craft will disappear completely from our view. Our lateral excursion into time
has completed its curve and we have returned to the starting point of our uni-dimensional
concept.
There is only one thing left to do. We immediately leap
into our space craft and begin our return journey to earth. As before, we
achieve an average or mean
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velocity equal to 4C. We land our craft near the
observatory of an astronomer who is a friend of ours, and rush in to tell him
of our return. We find him seated at his telescope observing our landing upon
the planet which we had set out to visit. When we inform him that we achieved
an average velocity of 4C, his reply is that this is impossible since the laws
of relativity clearly state that no object can achieve a velocity in excess of
C (with respect to a given reference point.). He will also point out that he
has been observing us constantly since our take off from the earth and that only
now, today, five years later, were we observed to have reached our destination.
Since the journey required five years of earth time, our average velocity was
only four fifths that of light.
According to the primary postulate of relativity, that for
mathematical purposes we must accept the results of our observations as valid,
the astronomer is perfectly correct in his statement that we did not, and could
not have exceeded the velocity C. The mere fact that we may have returned, be
seated at his side, and may perhaps be assisting him in his work, does not in
any way affect the validity of his observations nor the mathematics of
relativity which he applies thereto. He can only state that our arrival upon
the distant planet, and the moment of our return to earth were in fact
simultaneous.
We can see that, even if our energy level bad been
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so close to infinite that the outward trip had required
only one second, if during the one second trip we had emitted enough light to
make observation possible, the astronomer upon the earth would note that the
trip required four years and one second, and so would have undeniable proof of
the mathematics which postulate that only with infinite energy may the velocity
C be achieved.
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CHAPTER SEVEN
We have discussed briefly, a number of those aspects of
the principle of relativity which have created what we have described as
thought blocks in the minds of many students, scientists and engineers. We have
pointed out that these thought blocks are not actually inherent in the
mathematics of relativity, but are obstacles created by the arbitrary
interpretations which we have placed upon those mathematics. Yet these are the
illusionary obstacles which have prevented us from making the one approach to
space travel which is certain of ultimate success. We must come to realize that
the natural laws are not enemies to be destroyed, neutralized or overcome, but
are friends who will, if we but make the effort to understand them, produce for
us any end which we may desire. We must realize that the rules of limitation
found in our mathematical approach to nature, are limitations only of our own
perception and consciousness;
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and have no absolute significance insofar as nature itself
is concerned.
Some of the more dogmatic of our scientists still assert
that we can never hope to reach even the nearest of our neighboring stars
because, even with infinite energy, the trip would require many years. We have
seen that while this statement may be perfectly correct with respect to a reference
point upon the earth, if we leave the surface of the earth, our reference point
will go along with us, and the `limitations of relativity' will always precede
us at a distance equal to the quantity C. We need not fear that we will ever
overtake or be hampered in any way by those limitations.
The concept of the sine curve nature of physical law is
not at all new upon this earth, although the present civilization has not, as
yet, achieved any great understanding of it. It has been the knowledge and understanding
of this concept which has enabled previous civilizations to accomplish, in
their comparatively brief periods of development, many things which our present
vaunted science has not yet been able to duplicate.
One of the most convincing evidences of the fact that
previous civilizations upon the earth were familiar with the sine wave
characteristics of natural law is the symbol which has come down to us from
them: the circle with the sine wave passing through its center. The circle,
being without beginning or end, symbolizing
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the infinite nature of the Universe itself and the sine
wave passing through it symbolizing the curved but finite nature of the laws
which operate within the infinite whole. This is one of the great basic symbols
which have been found in every one of the ancient languages and cultures of the
earth. The precise meaning and significance of the symbol has become somewhat
blurred through the ages, with the result that the explanations of it vary
slightly with different sources. For example, the Chinese describe it as the
symbol of Yang and Yin, the male and female principle, or the positive and
negative aspects of the natural law. The same symbol is upon the pottery,
ornaments and historical tablets left by the prehistoric race known as the
Mound Builders of North America, who inhabited the Mississippi valley area an
estimated five to seven thousand years ago. To them it symbolized the origin,
nature and operation of the gravitational forces of the. Earth1.
In the book, "A Dweller on Two Planets" by Phylos,
written in 1886, the symbol is described as referring to the 'day and night
side forces of the universe' but here again they are also referred to as the
positive and negative aspects of natural law. From Egypt to Easter Island the
symbol is found, and at least partially understood by all students, with the
sole exception of
———
1. "Sacred Symbols of Mu" by James Churchward,
p. 227.
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those who follow that branch of learning which is commonly
known as 'Modern Science.' These students have apparently agreed by common
consent to discard and ignore all knowledge which had its origin more than a
few hundred years ago.
The inherently aggressive nature of man leads him to
attack, instinctively, any obstacle which he may find in his path. The
prospector in the mountains, who stubs his toe on a pebble and falls upon his
face, is much more likely to arise and instantly hurl the offending pebble into
the canyon, than he is to examine it carefully to see whether it may contain
the gold which he is seeking. The same situation exists in our science of
today. Whenever we come upon a natural law which appears to be an obstacle to
the particular end for which we are striving, our automatic reaction is to seek
means to destroy, to neutralize, or to overcome that law. The result is that
our present science follows an almost incredibly complex pattern of basic
conflicts. Natural laws are pitted against each other, or a greater degree of
one law is applied in opposition to a lesser degree of the same law. We seldom
pause to consider the fact that, because of the dual nature of all physical
law, if one aspect or pole of the law is a hindrance to our end, the other pole
or aspect of the same law will provide the assistance which we require.
Having resolved the misinterpretation of our mathematics,
the job of the theoretical physicist is done. The
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next move is up to the practicing physicist and to the
engineer.
If the student of applied physics will examine carefully,
in the light of these discussions, the reaction of the atomic nucleus to
various changes in mass and charge, the pattern for the modulation of the
gravitational curve will soon become self evident. The application of this
pattern to the operation of a full size space ship is somewhat more difficult,
but by no means impossibly so. Both the physicist and the engineer will find
their task greatly simplified, if they will devote a little time to the study
of those space craft which already exist and which have frequently been
observed within our atmosphere and, in at least a few cases, upon our surface.
It is true that the study of these craft is hampered by the rarity of their
landings upon our surface and by the agility of their maneuvering in our skies.
It is also made difficult by the large amount of chaff which must be separated
from the wheat before a serious and successful study may be undertaken.
Nevertheless, a sufficient number of careful and reliable observations have now
been made, to enable the student to draw a number of conclusions, with a high
degree of probability that these conclusions will be correct.
It is not within the province of this book to enumerate or
describe the large number of observations which have been accepted as
`reliable' by those who have
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investigated them, particularly since this task has
already been undertaken by competent men whose reports are available to the
public. I refer particularly to "The Report on Unidentified Flying
Objects" by Edward J. Ruppelt, former head of the Air Force Project Blue
Book, and "The Great Saucer Conspiracy" by Major Donald Keyhoe. A
number of other earnest and sincere men have spent considerable time and effort
in relaying to the public the precise nature of the reported observations.
It is, however, the intention of this writer to issue
within the next few months, a text which will incorporate a number of the
reliably reported observations, together with the specific conclusions which
may be drawn therefrom, in the light of our present day physics and the
extensions of that science which have been presented in this book.
A careful survey of our present rate of progress in the
physical science, leads inevitably to the conclusion that the Earthman, despite
the tremendous amount of effort now being applied in that direction, is about to
abandon the obsolete and inefficient concept of reaction propulsion. In its
place will come the concept of field propulsion, the natural and universal
means of producing kinetic energy differentials. With the development of this
concept, the age old barriers of time and space will rapidly dissolve and
Earthman will find that it is indeed only a step to the stars.
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